A Technical Review of Anode Architectures, Electrolyte Engineering, Cathode Chemistry, Cell Formats, Manufacturing Challenges, and Commercialization Pathways
Based on the 2026 review published in Energy Storage Materials
Abstract
Lithium-metal batteries (LMBs) are widely regarded as a promising route toward next-generation rechargeable batteries with cell-level specific energies exceeding 500 Wh/kg. Metallic lithium offers a theoretical specific capacity of approximately 3,861 mAh/g, compared with 372 mAh/g for graphite, and an electrochemical potential of approximately −3.04 V versus the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE).
However, lithium metal also introduces four interconnected degradation mechanisms: dendrite formation, unstable solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI), electrode-volume fluctuations, and low Coulombic efficiency.
This article examines the engineering strategies discussed in the 2026 review Engineering Extreme High Energy Density Lithium Metal Batteries (>500 Wh kg⁻¹) for Electrification of Society, published in Energy Storage Materials.
The discussion follows four dimensions: lithium-metal anode architectures, liquid and solid electrolyte systems, intercalation and conversion cathodes, and cell-to-pack engineering. It also examines manufacturing scalability, cost, safety, and the distinction between laboratory demonstrations and commercially reproducible cells.
The central conclusion is that achieving 500 Wh/kg is not a single-material challenge. It requires coordinated optimization of the entire battery system under realistic constraints, including high cathode areal capacity, lean electrolyte, limited excess lithium, stable interfaces, and manufacturable cell architectures.
Keywords: Lithium-metal battery; 500 Wh/kg; energy density; anode-free battery; solid-state electrolyte; Coulombic efficiency; cathode chemistry; cell engineering; battery manufacturing.
Primary source: Berrabah et al., Energy Storage Materials, Volume 90, Article 105391 (2026). DOI: 10.1016/j.ensm.2026.105391.
1. Introduction: Why 500 Wh/kg Matters
Commercial lithium-ion batteries have enabled electric vehicles, industrial robotics, portable electronics, and large-scale energy storage.
Yet applications such as electric aviation, long-endurance unmanned aerial vehicles, and advanced electric mobility continue to demand higher specific energy.
Conventional graphite-based lithium-ion cells face fundamental material-level limitations.
Graphite has a theoretical specific capacity of:
372 mAh/g
Metallic lithium offers:
3,861 mAh/g
This represents more than a tenfold difference in theoretical negative-electrode specific capacity.
Lithium also has a low density of approximately 0.53 g/cm³ and a highly negative electrochemical potential.
These characteristics make lithium metal attractive for high-energy rechargeable batteries.
However, theoretical electrode capacity does not directly translate into practical cell-level energy density.
A commercial cell must also contain:
- Cathode active material
- Electrolyte
- Separator
- Current collectors
- Packaging
- Electrical connections
- Mechanical support
Therefore, the real challenge is not simply increasing the specific capacity of the negative electrode.
It is reducing the mass of inactive components while maintaining electrochemical stability and acceptable cycle life.
The reviewed paper uses 500 Wh/kg at the cell level as its central engineering target.
This creates a useful framework: instead of asking which material offers the highest theoretical capacity, it asks what combination of components could realistically deliver a complete cell above that threshold.
Source: Berrabah et al. (2026), Introduction and overall review framework.
2. Review Scope and Methodology
The original publication is a comprehensive literature review rather than a new experimental study.
Its methodology involves examining published research across the major components of lithium-metal batteries and comparing their performance, engineering limitations, and commercialization potential.
The review covers four principal dimensions.
2.1 Anode Architectures
The negative-electrode strategies include:
- Conventional lithium-metal anodes
- Lithium-alloy anodes
- Anode-free configurations
- Lithium-lean and prelithiated configurations
Representative alloy systems include Li-In, Li-Sn, Li-Zn, and Li-Mg.
2.2 Electrolyte Systems
The review examines conventional and advanced liquid electrolytes, ionic liquids, inorganic solid electrolytes, polymer electrolytes, and hybrid systems.
2.3 Cathode Chemistries
The analysis covers conventional intercalation cathodes and emerging conversion-type materials, including:
- NMC and NCA
- LFP and LMFP
- Spinel oxides
- Sulfur
- Oxygen
- Halides
- Organic materials
- Selenium and tellurium
2.4 Cell and System Design
The review compares pouch, prismatic, and cylindrical formats, while considering packaging efficiency, safety, manufacturing cost, and cell-to-pack integration.
The paper’s central assessment uses the total cell mass, rather than active-material mass alone, when discussing practical specific energy.
This distinction is essential for interpreting high-energy battery claims.
Source: Berrabah et al. (2026), review methodology and component-level analysis.
3. Four Interconnected Failure Mechanisms in Lithium-Metal Batteries
Lithium metal is both the source of LMBs’ extraordinary energy potential and the origin of their most difficult degradation problems.
The review identifies four major failure mechanisms.
3.1 Lithium Dendrite Formation
During charging, metallic lithium is deposited on the negative electrode.
Ideally, this deposition should be dense and uniform.
In practice, nonuniform current density and ion transport can produce irregular lithium structures.
These structures may increase surface area, accelerate side reactions, and in severe cases contribute to internal short-circuit risks.
3.2 Unstable Solid-Electrolyte Interphase
The SEI forms through reactions between lithium metal and the electrolyte.
A stable SEI should allow lithium-ion transport while limiting continued electrolyte decomposition.
However, repeated lithium plating and stripping can damage the interface.
SEI fracture and reformation consume both electrolyte and cyclable lithium.
3.3 Volume Fluctuations
Lithium deposition and stripping change the physical volume and morphology of the negative electrode.
These changes can disturb interfacial contact, particularly in solid-state systems.
Mechanical stress and uneven contact can then further destabilize electrochemical reactions.
3.4 Low Coulombic Efficiency
Coulombic efficiency describes the relationship between charge recovered during discharge and charge supplied during charging.
A simplified expression is:
CE = Q_discharge / Q_charge × 100%
Even small irreversible losses become significant over repeated cycles.
This is especially problematic in anode-free or lithium-lean batteries, where little excess lithium is available.
3.5 Why These Mechanisms Reinforce One Another
The four problems do not occur independently.
They form a degradation feedback network:
Uneven Lithium Deposition
↓
SEI Damage and Reformation
↓
Lithium and Electrolyte Consumption
↓
Nonuniform Ion Transport
↓
Additional Irregular Deposition
↓
Accelerated Capacity Loss
This feedback becomes particularly severe when cells are engineered with very little electrolyte and minimal excess lithium.
Source: Berrabah et al. (2026), Figure 2 and associated discussion of degradation mechanisms.
4. Reverse-Engineering a 500 Wh/kg Lithium-Metal Cell
One of the most valuable contributions of the review is its use of practical cell-level constraints.
To realistically approach or exceed 500 Wh/kg, the authors identify three closely connected design requirements.
Engineering parameterTarget discussed in the reviewPurposeCathode areal capacity≥4 mAh/cm²Reduce inactive-material mass relative to stored energyN/P capacity ratio≤2Limit excess lithiumElectrolyte-to-capacity ratio≤2 g/AhMinimize electrolyte mass
These are engineering targets, not universal guarantees of 500 Wh/kg performance.
4.1 High Cathode Areal Capacity
Higher cathode loading increases stored energy per unit electrode area.
This can reduce the relative contribution of separators and current collectors.
However, thicker electrodes may introduce transport limitations and mechanical challenges.
4.2 Low N/P Ratio
The N/P ratio compares negative-electrode capacity with positive-electrode capacity.
Reducing excess lithium improves potential energy density.
But it also reduces the lithium inventory available to compensate for irreversible losses.
4.3 Lean Electrolyte
Reducing electrolyte mass improves practical specific energy.
However, electrolyte depletion becomes more critical when the cell has little chemical reserve.
4.4 The Central Engineering Conflict
These requirements create a difficult trade-off.
Higher energy density requires reducing material margins.
But those same margins often help maintain cycle life and reliability.
Therefore, a cell that performs well under flooded-electrolyte laboratory conditions may behave very differently under commercially relevant lean-electrolyte conditions.
Source: Berrabah et al. (2026), cell-level energy-density analysis and engineering constraints.
5. Lithium-Metal Anode Strategies
The review evaluates several approaches to managing lithium inventory and interfacial stability.
5.1 Conventional Lithium-Metal Anodes
Pre-installed lithium metal provides additional lithium inventory.
This can improve tolerance to irreversible lithium loss.
However, excess lithium adds mass and volume, reducing achievable energy density.
5.2 Lithium-Alloy Anodes
Lithium alloys involving indium, tin, zinc, or magnesium may improve certain aspects of interfacial behavior and lithium deposition.
Their disadvantages can include additional mass, altered operating potential, and reduced energy-density advantages.
5.3 Anode-Free Batteries
Anode-free batteries contain no pre-installed negative-electrode active material at assembly.
During initial charging, lithium deposits onto the negative current collector.
This architecture can substantially improve gravimetric and volumetric energy density.
However, it is extremely sensitive to irreversible lithium consumption.
Anode-free architecture maximizes energy-density potential while minimizing lithium-inventory tolerance.
5.4 Prelithiation and Lithium Replenishment
Prelithiation strategies introduce additional cyclable lithium to compensate for irreversible losses.
These approaches can improve cycle-life potential but introduce additional manufacturing and materials challenges.
5.5 Ultra-Thin Lithium Foil
The review highlights thin lithium-metal electrodes as an important route toward practical high-energy cells.
Continuous manufacturing of lithium foil below approximately 50 μm is a relevant engineering challenge.
However, lithium-foil thickness alone does not determine commercial viability.
Surface quality, handling, mechanical integrity, and production consistency are equally important.
Source: Berrabah et al. (2026), lithium-anode architecture and manufacturing sections.
6. Electrolyte Engineering: Why No Single Chemistry Solves Everything
Electrolytes are central to lithium-metal battery performance.
They must transport lithium ions while remaining compatible with both electrodes.
They also influence:
- SEI formation
- Cathode-electrolyte interphase stability
- Lithium deposition morphology
- Operating temperature
- Safety
- Manufacturing cost
The review compares major electrolyte families across seven engineering dimensions.
Its radar-chart approach demonstrates why no single electrolyte offers the best performance in every category.
6.1 Conventional Liquid Electrolytes
Carbonate-based electrolytes benefit from mature manufacturing infrastructure, relatively favorable cost, and established ionic transport performance.
However, conventional formulations often exhibit limited compatibility with reactive lithium metal.
6.2 Ether-Based Electrolytes
Ether systems can offer improved lithium-metal compatibility under selected conditions.
Their limitations may include oxidative stability at high cathode potentials.
6.3 Fluorinated and Concentrated Electrolytes
Fluorinated electrolytes and localized high-concentration systems can modify lithium-ion solvation structures and promote more protective interphases.
These approaches can improve lithium deposition reversibility.
However, specialized solvents, salts, and formulation complexity may increase cost.
6.4 Ionic-Liquid Electrolytes
Ionic liquids can offer low volatility and favorable thermal characteristics.
Challenges include viscosity, cost, transport limitations, and manufacturing scalability.
6.5 Inorganic Solid Electrolytes
Solid electrolytes include sulfides, oxides, and halides.
Each offers a different balance of ionic conductivity, mechanical behavior, chemical stability, and processing requirements.
Sulfides: Attractive ionic conductivity, but sensitivity to moisture and interface chemistry.
Oxides: Good chemical stability, but brittleness and interfacial-contact challenges.
Halides: Promising oxidative stability and compatibility with certain cathode systems, although complete-cell integration remains challenging.
6.6 Polymer and Composite Electrolytes
Polymer and composite systems offer opportunities for flexibility and scalable processing.
However, ionic conductivity, voltage stability, and mechanical strength may limit performance.
6.7 Comparative Assessment
Electrolyte familyPrincipal advantagesMain engineering limitationsConventional liquidMature processing, cost, transportLithium-metal compatibilityEther-based liquidFavorable lithium interface in selected systemsHigh-voltage stabilityFluorinated / concentrated liquidInterphase stabilizationCost and formulation complexityIonic liquidLow volatility, thermal characteristicsViscosity, cost, scalabilityInorganic solidPotential safety and interface advantagesThin-layer manufacturing, contact, brittleness or chemical sensitivityPolymer / composite solidFlexibility and processing potentialConductivity and mechanical/electrochemical trade-offs
This table is a qualitative synthesis of the review, not a reproduction of its numerical radar-chart scores.
The central finding remains:
No single electrolyte simultaneously maximizes conductivity, lithium compatibility, oxidative stability, safety, cost efficiency, and manufacturability.
Source: Berrabah et al. (2026), Figure 18 and electrolyte-engineering discussion.
7. Cathode Chemistry: Energy Density Requires More Than Lithium Metal
Replacing graphite with lithium metal does not automatically create a 500 Wh/kg cell.
The cathode remains a major determinant of stored energy.
A simplified relationship is:
Energy ≈ Capacity × Average Discharge Voltage
The cathode must therefore offer sufficient capacity, voltage, and practical loading.
7.1 Layered Oxide Cathodes
NMC, NCA, and related layered oxides provide relatively high operating voltages and established manufacturing experience.
They remain important candidates for high-energy lithium-metal systems.
However, high-nickel compositions may face structural instability, microcracking, and interfacial degradation.
7.2 Olivine Cathodes
LFP and LMFP offer advantages in stability, cost, and cycle-life potential.
However, their voltage and capacity characteristics constrain achievable cell-level energy density.
7.3 Spinel Cathodes
Spinel materials, including high-voltage LNMO, offer potentially attractive power and voltage characteristics.
Challenges include electrolyte oxidation and interface stability.
7.4 Sulfur Cathodes
Sulfur offers very high theoretical specific capacity.
However, practical lithium-sulfur batteries face problems including polysulfide-related degradation, limited conductivity, and challenging electrolyte requirements.
7.5 Oxygen Cathodes
Lithium-oxygen systems offer extraordinary theoretical energy-density potential.
But oxygen-reaction reversibility, parasitic chemistry, and practical system integration remain substantial obstacles.
7.6 Halide Cathodes
Metal-halide conversion cathodes offer opportunities involving material availability, cost, and electrochemical performance.
Their commercial potential depends on reaction reversibility and complete-cell stability.
7.7 Organic, Selenium, and Tellurium Cathodes
These emerging chemistries offer alternative electrochemical mechanisms and potential advantages in specific applications.
However, theoretical capacity, material density, conductivity, stability, and practical cost must all be evaluated together.
7.8 The Cathode Trade-Off
The review shows that conventional intercalation cathodes remain comparatively mature.
Conversion-type cathodes offer greater theoretical energy-density opportunities but generally face more demanding reversibility and engineering challenges.
Source: Berrabah et al. (2026), Figure 19 and cathode-material comparison.
8. Cell Architecture: Pouch, Prismatic, and Cylindrical
Cell packaging strongly affects practical energy density.
8.1 Pouch Cells
Pouch cells can minimize packaging mass and support high cell-level energy density.
However, swelling, mechanical protection, stack pressure, and thermal propagation must be managed.
8.2 Prismatic Cells
Prismatic cells provide rigid packaging and potentially efficient module integration.
Trade-offs include housing mass, mechanical design, and internal thermal management.
8.3 Cylindrical Cells
Cylindrical cells benefit from established manufacturing processes and robust mechanical geometry.
However, housing mass and intercell packaging can reduce system-level energy-density efficiency.
8.4 Why Cell Format Matters
The highest-energy cell format is not automatically the best format for every application.
For example, pouch cells may provide an advantage in cell-level specific energy, while cylindrical cells may offer different benefits in manufacturing maturity and mechanical containment.
The optimal choice depends on the complete battery system.
Source: Berrabah et al. (2026), cell-format and packaging analysis.
9. Manufacturing Scalability: The Most Underestimated Commercialization Barrier
One of the most important industrial implications of the review is the gap between laboratory performance and mass-production consistency.
A research cell may achieve excellent performance under carefully controlled conditions.
But industrial production requires thousands or millions of cells to perform within acceptable limits.
The difficulty increases under:
- High cathode loading
- Ultra-lean electrolyte
- Low N/P ratio
- Thin lithium electrodes
- Strict interfacial requirements
These conditions reduce tolerance to manufacturing variation.
9.1 Thin Lithium Foil
Ultra-thin lithium foil requires precise thickness control and careful handling.
9.2 Electrolyte Distribution
Lean-electrolyte cells are sensitive to electrolyte wetting and local distribution.
9.3 Interfacial Consistency
Small variations in electrode surfaces can influence lithium deposition and cycle life.
9.4 Solid-State Manufacturing
Thin solid-electrolyte layers must maintain mechanical integrity, ionic transport, and interfacial contact.
9.5 Yield and Cost
Material-cost calculations alone do not establish commercial economics.
Actual manufacturing cost also depends on:
- Equipment
- Production yield
- Scrap
- Quality control
- Formation time
- Throughput
- Safety testing
A laboratory energy-density record is not equivalent to a commercially repeatable product specification.
This distinction is essential when evaluating emerging lithium-metal technologies.
Source: Berrabah et al. (2026), scalability, manufacturing, and cost discussions.
10. Safety and Lifecycle Considerations
Lithium-metal batteries must be evaluated as complete electrochemical systems.
Safety concerns include:
- Internal short circuits
- Lithium penetration
- Interfacial instability
- Electrolyte reactions
- Thermal propagation
- Mechanical deformation
Solid-state electrolytes may reduce some risks associated with volatile liquid electrolytes.
However, solid-state architecture does not automatically eliminate all battery safety hazards.
Mechanical defects, interface instability, and lithium penetration remain relevant.
Lifecycle assessment must also consider:
- Lithium consumption
- Material sourcing
- Manufacturing energy
- Battery lifetime
- Recycling
- Replacement frequency
A high-energy battery with poor lifetime or low manufacturing yield may offer less practical value than its energy-density figure suggests.
Source: Berrabah et al. (2026), safety, cost, and lifecycle considerations.
11. From Materials to Pack: A System-Level Roadmap
The review ultimately argues for integrated engineering rather than isolated material optimization.
The development pathway can be organized into four connected levels.
Level 1: Material Development
Improve:
- Lithium reversibility
- Cathode capacity
- Electrolyte stability
- Interface chemistry
Level 2: Electrode and Cell Engineering
Optimize:
- Electrode loading
- N/P ratio
- Electrolyte quantity
- Stack pressure
- Current collectors
- Cell packaging
Level 3: Manufacturing Engineering
Establish:
- Continuous thin-lithium processing
- Reproducible interfaces
- Stable electrolyte distribution
- Quality control
- Manufacturing yield
Level 4: Module and Pack Integration
Evaluate:
- Thermal management
- Mechanical protection
- Electrical connections
- BMS integration
- Safety
- Usable energy
- System-level mass
A cell-level result above 500 Wh/kg cannot simply be transferred to a pack without accounting for additional components.
For example, if a hypothetical 500 Wh/kg cell accounts for 80% of total pack mass, then a simple mass-based estimate gives:
Pack Specific Energy ≈ 500 × 0.80
≈ 400 Wh/kg
This is an illustrative calculation, not a result reported by the review.
It demonstrates why cell-to-pack integration must be considered from the beginning.
Source: Berrabah et al. (2026), Figure 26 and integrated engineering roadmap. Pack-level example: independent illustrative calculation.
12. Implications for UAVs and Electric Aviation
For industrial UAVs and electric aviation, specific energy directly influences aircraft design.
Battery mass affects total aircraft mass.
Aircraft mass affects required lift and propulsion power.
Propulsion power affects mission energy demand.
This creates a system-level relationship:
Battery Specific Energy
↓
Battery Mass
↓
Aircraft Mass
↓
Propulsion Energy Demand
↓
Mission Endurance and Payload
However, high specific energy alone is insufficient.
Aircraft batteries must also deliver adequate power during takeoff, climb, maneuvering, and landing.
Therefore, an aviation-oriented lithium-metal battery must balance:
- Wh/kg
- W/kg
- Cycle life
- Thermal stability
- Safety
- Low-temperature performance
- Reliability
- Pack-level integration
This application-level interpretation extends the review’s system-engineering framework to UAV battery selection.
It should not be interpreted as evidence that a particular 500 Wh/kg lithium-metal chemistry has already completed aviation qualification.
13. Limitations of the Reviewed Literature
Although the review provides a comprehensive framework, several limitations deserve attention.
13.1 Differences in Testing Conditions
Studies use different:
- Cell formats
- Electrode loadings
- Electrolyte quantities
- Stack pressures
- Cycling rates
- Temperature conditions
Direct comparisons therefore require caution.
13.2 Laboratory-to-Industry Translation
Many advanced results remain dependent on controlled laboratory conditions.
Commercial manufacturing may introduce variability that is not captured in small-scale experiments.
13.3 Incomplete Cost Representation
Raw-material prices do not fully represent industrial production costs.
Manufacturing yield and equipment utilization can materially affect economics.
13.4 Solid-State Manufacturing Maturity
High laboratory ionic conductivity does not automatically establish scalable production of thin, defect-free solid-electrolyte layers.
13.5 Cell-Level Versus Pack-Level Metrics
Reported cell-level energy density should not be confused with usable pack-level energy density.
These limitations do not invalidate the review.
They identify where further engineering evidence is needed.
14. Future Research Directions
The review points toward several priorities.
14.1 All-Solid-State Lithium-Metal Battery Validation
Future work must demonstrate that solid-state systems can maintain high energy density while meeting realistic requirements for:
- Pressure
- Cycle life
- Temperature
- Safety
- Manufacturing yield
14.2 Continuous Ultra-Thin Lithium-Foil Production
Manufacturing lithium foil below approximately 50 μm with acceptable consistency remains an important industrial objective.
14.3 Standardized Cell-Level Evaluation
Researchers and manufacturers would benefit from more consistent reporting of:
- Total cell mass
- Specific energy
- Areal capacity
- N/P ratio
- Electrolyte-to-capacity ratio
- Stack pressure
- Cycle-life conditions
- Safety performance
14.4 Integrated Materials and Cell Design
Future progress is likely to depend on coordinated optimization of anodes, electrolytes, cathodes, interfaces, and cell architecture.
14.5 Manufacturing-Oriented Research
A greater share of research should evaluate practical pouch cells and scalable manufacturing conditions rather than relying primarily on small laboratory cells.
15. Conclusion
Lithium-metal batteries offer an important pathway toward rechargeable cells exceeding 500 Wh/kg.
Their potential originates from the exceptionally high theoretical capacity and low electrochemical potential of metallic lithium.
However, four interconnected degradation mechanisms—dendrite formation, unstable SEI, volume fluctuations, and poor Coulombic efficiency—continue to restrict practical performance.
The 2026 review demonstrates that no single material strategy is sufficient.
Anode architecture must be optimized together with electrolyte chemistry.
Cathode selection must be evaluated together with practical electrode loading.
Cell packaging must be considered alongside manufacturing consistency, safety, and cost.
The engineering requirements are especially demanding when targeting:
Cathode Areal Capacity ≥4 mAh/cm²
N/P Ratio ≤2
Electrolyte-to-Capacity Ratio ≤2 g/Ah
These conditions create the possibility of exceptional energy density while simultaneously reducing the margins available for electrochemical and manufacturing imperfections.
For industry, the most important challenge is therefore not simply demonstrating one high-energy cell.
It is establishing a technology that can be manufactured repeatedly, safely, and economically.
The transition from 500 Wh/kg laboratory demonstrations to commercially viable lithium-metal batteries will depend on system integration and manufacturing consistency—not energy density alone.
That is the central message of this review.
References and Data Attribution
[1] Primary Review
Berrabah, S. E., M R, A. K., Dawkins, J. I. G., Selva, T. M. G., & Zaghib, K. (2026).
Engineering extreme high energy density lithium metal batteries (>500 Wh kg⁻¹) for electrification of society.
Energy Storage Materials, 90, 105391.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2026.105391
This publication is the primary source for the review’s technical framework, degradation mechanisms, electrolyte comparisons, cathode classifications, cell-format assessment, and engineering roadmap.
[2] Figure 2 — Lithium-Metal Battery Failure Mechanisms
Source: Reference [1], Figure 2.
Covers dendrite formation, SEI instability, volume fluctuations, Coulombic efficiency, and mitigation strategies.
[3] Figure 18 — Electrolyte Comparison
Source: Reference [1], Figure 18.
Compares electrolyte families across engineering performance dimensions, including transport, stability, lithium compatibility, and practical implementation considerations.
[4] Figure 19 — Cathode Material Comparison
Source: Reference [1], Figure 19.
Provides comparative information on candidate cathode chemistries, including capacity, voltage, and theoretical energy-density characteristics.
[5] Figure 26 — Integrated Engineering Roadmap
Source: Reference [1], Figure 26.
Summarizes strategies involving lithium anodes, electrolytes, cathodes, cell architecture, safety, cost, and commercialization.
Data attribution note: The numerical material properties, engineering thresholds, and qualitative comparisons discussed above are attributed to the primary review and its underlying literature. They are not presented as independently measured results from this LinkedIn article. Readers requiring the original experimental source for an individual result should consult the corresponding citation within Berrabah et al. (2026).
Original article: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2026.105391
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